Roman Hadrians Wall Carlisle

Food and Drink Artifacts

Single handled white ware flagon - click to explore

What did the Roman army eat?

Bread was the most important part of a soldier’s diet. Each soldier was given a grain ration every day from which porridge and bread flour was made. Bread was baked in ovens built into the ramparts of the fort, or in tins placed on the hearth. The soldiers supplemented their grain ration with meat, eggs and cheese from the livestock that most large forts kept. Bacon was particularly popular as it kept well and didn’t need to be eaten quickly before it went off.

A soldier’s diet varied depending on where he was stationed, as different grains and plants grew better in certain areas, and hunting and foraging also played a part in acquiring food. A unit from Corbridge is known to have eaten a variety of wild animals including foxes, badgers, beavers and moles, while soldiers at Benwell ate mussels. At Carlisle, wild geese from the Solway were caught and eaten. Though probably enjoyed by the soldiers and officers, hunting was not relied upon to provide a large amount of meat, and the capture of large game such as wild boar was probably quite rare.

The military in the north of England also traded with the locals to obtain items such as beer and extra grain if they could not grow enough for their own requirements. Local Celtic beer was enjoyed by the officers and soldiers alike and was drunk in large quantities – Vindolanda had its own brewers to fill the demand! Wine was a very important part of a soldier’s daily rations, even when on campaign. There were two types of wine: sour and vintage, with the former perhaps tasting like vinegar, though this was as appreciatively drunk by the army as vintage wine. Romans drank their wine diluted with hot or cold water.

Wine was one of the foodstuffs that the army imported to Britain - there were several products essential to the Roman way of eating that could not be grown or produced in the cold climate of northern England. The most important were olives, olive oil, wine and garum or liquamen. This was a pungent fish sauce made by layering fish, salt and herbs in a barrel and leaving it to ferment in the sun for a month until the contents became liquid. Garum was used widely in Roman recipes (even sweet ones) to add flavour to a dish - a little like modern Worcestershire sauce. Spices including pepper, ginger and cinnamon were also imported along with dates, figs, almonds and pine nuts. Lentils have been excavated at Carlisle, which would also have been imported from elsewhere in the Empire.

We know a lot about the food and drink consumed by the army on Hadrian’s Wall from the Vindolanda tablets (preserved wooden tablets containing letters and accounts from the fort). These mention a wide range of foodstuffs that were produced at or ordered by the fort. These included pork, chickens, goat-meat, apples, figs, olives, honey, pepper and other spices, and wild boar and venison for the fort commander. One tablet records the gift of fifty oysters, presumably a luxury to be eaten by the commander’s household. Imported foods would have arrived in amphorae (large terracotta jars with handles), which varied in size and shape depending on what they contained and where they had come from.

The Roman army was not entirely, or even mostly, made up of Italian soldiers. Those stationed on Hadrian's Wall when it was first built came from all over the Empire: Italy, Gaul, Spain, Batavia (Belgium and the Netherlands), Thrace (Bulgaria), Germany, North Africa and the Near East. They would have brought with them their own styles of food and cooking, and many received food parcels from home to liven up their rations.

Soldiers would have eaten their food from imported Samian ware bowls and dishes, with a spoon that had a sharp pointed handle for spearing chunks of meat. They would have had frying pans and pottery jars for cooking their food - the frying pans had fold-away handles so they could easily be packed up and taken on campaign. The soldiers would not have cooked their own food individually, but in large groups.

Wheat and barley were the primary grains grown for the soldiers’ rations, although spelt and rye were also used. Barley was viewed by the Italian-born Roman soldiers as horse feed or punishment rations, and made a grey, unappetising bread. It was, however, the main grain found at Birdoswald, a fort that held an infantry unit and therefore had only a small number of officers’ horses to feed. The quantities in which it was stored suggest that it was intended for human consumption as well.

Whether the army had suppliers who provided goods to an entire area, or whether each fort was responsible for setting up its own supply chain, is not yet known. Given the famed organisation and discipline of the Roman army, it is unlikely that each fort was left to fend for itself, particularly as the north of England was largely a military zone. It is thought that a grain depot at South Shields, at the eastern end of the Wall, was used to supply grain to many, if not all, of the forts along the Wall. Most people in Roman Britain drank wine from Gaul (France), but the soldiers along Hadrian's Wall seem to have bought their wine from elsewhere, possibly the Rhineland (modern Belgium and north-west Germany), which may suggest some organisation in purchasing wine for a number of forts at once. Many of the forts were far away from towns, but they attracted settlements known as vici, inhabited by civilians and traders who provided goods and services to the army and food and entertainment for the soldiers to spend their wages on.

What did civilians eat?

Although Carlisle began life as a fort, it also soon became one of only two large civilian settlements along Hadrian's Wall, the other being Corbridge. This meant that people in Roman Carlisle had access to a far wider variety of foods, both imported and grown in Britain, than those who lived in rural settlements. What people ate also depended greatly on how much money they had - people with enough money would purchase imported foods similar to those the army used; olives, olive oil, wine and garum, as well as dates and figs. These prestige items were bought both to be enjoyed and to show off to other people how 'Romanised' you were. Most of the civilians living in Carlisle would have been native Britons who had chosen to adopt the Roman way of life.

Poor people would have eaten far fewer imported products and had a much simpler diet, based around the soldiers' staple - bread. In a large town like Carlisle, this would have been available to buy from bakers or markets, saving people from an endless cycle of grinding flour and baking loaves. The urban poor benefited more than the rural poor by the availability or a wider range of foods from the many merchants who traded in towns. Taverns also sold 'fast food' like pies, pasties and even an early form of hamburger, which were popular among poorer civilians. Outside Carlisle, those living in settlements around the forts also had a wide range of foods to choose from, as supply routes between forts were very good. The presence of soldiers also attracted merchants and traders because their army wages meant they had cash to spend on food, drink and entertainment.

Beer was the drink of choice for nearly everyone, as fresh drinking water was rarely available. Beer for everyday drinking was not a strongly alcoholic drink, but a weaker version, suitable even for children. Stronger beer was also brewed, but as a drink for adults, much like it is today. Native Britons also shared the Roman taste for wine, but they drank it undiluted, much to the horror of the Romans!

Everyone who was integrated into Roman society in Britain benefited from the huge range of new foods that the Romans introduced. Before the arrival of the Romans, Britain had only a few native vegetables. Beans, a type of parsnip and fat-hen (now seen as a common weed) were available, but wild herbs would have been the major source of 'greens'. Native fruits and berries, including wild raspberries, elderberries, blackberries and crab-apples would have been eaten in summer and autumn.

The Romans brought with them cabbage, leeks, onions, cucumber, apples, grapes, cherries, and many more fruits and vegetables. They also introduced herbs and spices to the British diet (many of which were also used in medicines) and introduced new species such as hares, pheasants and the edible dormouse. The Romans brought to Britain new farming methods and breeds of livestock, and more productive grains. All of these changes made the average person's diet far healthier and more varied.

Most of these plants and animals thrived in the British climate, particularly in the warmer south. The north was slightly less amenable to some species, although the climate around Hadrian's Wall in Roman times may have been slightly warmer than it is today. The extensive road system built by the Romans in Britain meant, however, that produce could be sent to markets all around Britain from wherever it grew best. The presence of a large army meant that a wide variety of foods were brought to Hadrian's Wall, which might otherwise have been unavailable to civilians.

Not everyone in Britain during the Roman occupation joined in with the Roman way of life. Many of the native Celtic inhabitants lived in small, isolated rural settlements and their way of eating changed little with the Romans' arrival. They were mostly subsistence farmers, meaning they ate whatever they could produce. These people lived, as they always had, on a diet of stews, broths and porridges. They reared animals, mainly sheep and cattle, so they had meat and milk, but their diet was still generally a poor one. The new vegetables that arrived with the Romans may have found their way into the diet of the peasantry, but they neither wanted, nor could afford, the expensive imported foods that native Britons in towns were learning to enjoy.

How well rural people ate depended on the season and the area in which they lived. Summer was a time of plenty, when berries and plants grew in abundance and milk and meat were fresh. Winters saw a much more restricted diet, with very little fresh food. Porridges made of cereals were the staple in winter, which provided little protein or important vitamins. Meat preserving methods such as salting, smoking and drying were known, but a poor meat yield or harvest, or prolonged bad weather, could bring communities to the edge of famine. Health problems associated with vitamin and calcium deficiency were common, such as scurvy, rickets and brittle bones.

In many areas, even those occupied by the Romans, the simple food of the rural Celtic peasantry continued to be eaten throughout the Roman period and for some 1500 years later, until only a century or two ago.

Civilian Life Artifacts

Civilian Life in Roman Carlisle

Civilian Life in Roman Carlisle

Before the Roman army arrived in the area in AD72 or 73, the Celtic people, who belonged to the tribe of the ‘Deer People’ (Carvetii), were living in small rural villages. After the Romans arrived and built a fort, the town of Luguvalium began to develop.

Roman Carlisle became a large and important town and we know that it had a number of public buildings. For example, a bathhouse has been found under the market hall, were the people of Carlisle would have gone to bathe and socialise. As the town lay only a few miles south of Hadrian’s Wall, and within sight of the forts at Carlisle and Stanwix, Luguvalium would also have had inns to keep the soldiers and civilians entertained.

From the discovery of locally made and imported goods, we also know that Roman Carlisle had shops that both the soldiers and civilians would have used. A wide variety of products would have been available, some things would have been grown or made locally, such as grain or leather goods and a wide variety of products, such as olives and wine were imported. These would then have been sold to the army and to civilians in the town.

The bathhouse, which lies underneath the present day Market hall, contained at least eleven rooms, including a hot room (caldarium), a warm room (tepidarium) and a cold plunge bath (frigidarium). The bathhouse was not only a place to bathe, but was also a place where people would have socialised, gambled and played games. Both men and women would have used the baths, but would have attended at different times of the day.

Apart from the bathhouse, few other public buildings have been specifically identified. But the discovery of large decorative column capitals and bases, suggests that the town had a number of civic buildings that are yet to be located. These columns may have come from a forum, mansio (inn), temples, or a market hall. A large unidentified building that has been discovered underneath Tullie House may represent one of these public buildings.

As well as civic buildings, there may even have been some form of regulated refuge removal from the town, as a large deposit has been found near Botchergate. Due to the amount and range of material, it would seem that this represents a sustained period of rubbish removal, rather than a one off event.

The regional importance of Roman Carlisle can be seen in the fact that, by AD105, the Centurio Regionarius, the military administrator for the region, was stationed in the town. This is mentioned in one of the Vindolanda writing tablets which names him as Annius Equester. As well as housing this important post, Carlisle may also have been the civitas capital of the Carvetii tribe. These centres administrated regional governance and tax collection, and a number are known in Britain.

The people of Roman Carlisle would have lived in different kinds of houses dependent on wealth and status. Underneath the Lanes, a building has been excavated, which has been interpreted as a large house. This was clearly the home of a wealthy family, owing to the size of the building and the fact that a hypocaust (under floor heating) was present in one of the rooms. A similar building, also likely to be a house, has been found on Scotch Street. The majority of civilians, however, would have lived in much simpler dwellings, probably in ‘strip houses’ similar to those in many other Roman settlements. It has been suggested that a row of buildings in both Blackfriars Street and at St. Mary’s Gate represent this type of dwelling.

Communication Artifacts

Communication before email

Communication before email

Before the arrival of the Romans in Britain, Celtic tribes did not use writing. However, following the invasion in AD43, literacy was introduced. Latin was the official language of Roman society and its use spread as Rome conquered large parts of Europe.

We cannot be sure of how many people were able to read and write in Roman Carlisle, although on the evidence of tombstones, writing tablets and letter seals, it is safe to say that some sections of the town learnt to read and write. This was, however, probably only a small proportion of the people of Carlisle and it is likely that they were attached to the army in some way.

However, for anyone seeking advancement in Romano-British society, it would have been essential to be able to speak some Latin, as it was the official language of the bureaucracy, trading and the army. Although some would have had a grasp of Latin, many of the natives in conquered provinces, including people in Carlisle, would still have used their native tongue. With people settling in Carlisle from across the empire, including Greeks, Syrians and Raetians (Switzerland), there would have been a variety of languages spoken in the town.

Long distance communication was made possible by Roman roads that supplied quick and effective routes for messengers. These roads were built throughout Cumbria and southern Scotland and linked Carlisle to the rest of the province. Without these arteries, essential communication would have been much more difficult to maintain.

Official military and administrative messages were relayed using these roads by the Cursus Publicus, the imperial postal service. These men were mounted on horseback and would be sent as envoys to supply important messages throughout the province and the empire. A writing tablet found in Carlisle has the words ‘In Britania’ written on the address, suggesting that it may have come from another province.

It is clear that the army was heavily bureaucratic, on the evidence of the Vindolanda writing tablets which, amongst other things, detail the administration of units, inspection of equipment and requests for leave. The army in Carlisle would have produced hundreds of documents and letters too; some of which would have been sent across the province and even the empire. Furthermore, as the home of the centurio regionarius, the military administrator for the region, a large number of messages would undoubtedly have been sent to and from Carlisle on a regularly basis.

One such example is of a letter found in Carlisle, addressed to a Marcus Julius Martialis, who was probably a member of the army. Interestingly the address says at either Trimontium (Newstead) or Luguvalium (Carlisle). Clearly the sender was unsure of where this man was stationed.

There were a number of writing mediums in the Roman world and two have been found in the Carlisle area. The first type, ink on wood rarely survive, however, due to the water logged nature of the remains they have been preserved. In fact Carlisle is second only to Vindolanda in the number that have been discovered. One of these ink on wood tablets found at Carlisle is addressed to a man named‘Kimius Sedatus’.

The most common writing medium in the Roman world was wax tablets, and a number have also been found in the area. The tablets usually consisted of two pieces of wood fastened together with string. Each piece of wood had a shallow recess which was filled with wax; this was then inscribed with a stylus (pointed tool). Wax tablets could be reused, by simply smoothing over the old text. Stylus pens were usually made of iron, a number of which have been found in and around Carlisle.

Other evidence of communication comes from a number of Seal boxes that have been found. A number of different designs have been discovered in Carlisle, some of which are highly decorative. They were used primarily to seal important documents and letters. Secrecy was ensured by tying the seal around the document with thread, the inside was then filled with wax, and the sender’s personal seal would have been used to stamp the wax. A lead seal was also discovered at Ravenglass. It has lettering that identifies it has the first cohort of the Aelian fleet, and it was probably used to seal an official letter or document.

Military Artifacts

Helmet carrying handle - click to explore

Personal identity disc - click to explore

Personal identity plate - click to explore

Bronze scabbard runner - click to explore

Phalera baldric fitting - click to explore

Wooden practice type sword - click to explore

The Roman Army

The Roman Army

By the time of the invasion of Britain in AD43, the Roman army was made up of two types of soldier; Legionaries and Auxiliaries. Both were professional and paid forces.

Legionaries were heavily armoured infantry soldiers who were all Roman citizens. They served in a legion that consisted of about 5,500 men. The legion was then broken down into ten cohorts of around 480 men, which in turn consisted of six centuries of 80 men. The first cohort of a legion was, however, always double strength. Each legion also had a unit of 120 cavalrymen. During the time the Romans were in Britain (AD43-410), there were about 30 legions deployed across the empire

Auxiliaries provided the army with specialist skills such as cavalry men that the heavy infantry legions could not provide. There were three types of auxiliaries: Infantry which were in either 500 or 1000 strong units. There were about forty of the former and six of the latter stationed in Britain. They were organised into six or ten centuries of 80 men. Cavalry units were also either 512 or 768 strong. There was only one large cavalry unit in Britain, at it was stationed here in Carlisle, at Stanwix.

Besides the cavalry and auxiliaries there were also irregular troops called numeri, one of these, the unit of moors (from North Africa) was stationed at Burgh by Sands.

Claudius invaded Britain with four legions, The second Augusta, The NinthHispania, The fourteenth Gemina and The twentieth Valeria Victrix. However, for the majority of the time that the Romans were in Britain, three legions garrisoned the province and were stationed in York, Chester and Caerleon in Wales. About 40, 000 auxiliary troops were also based across the country, including in Carlisle, which was the largest number of auxiliaries stationed in any one province.

As well as providing heavy infantry support in battle, legions were also used in building projects, constructing forts and even Hadrian’s Wall. There is evidence from inscriptions in the Tullie House collection, of the presence of both the Second Legion Augusta and the Twentieth Valeria Victrix in the area. These consist of the symbols of the Twentieth, which was the running boar, along with Pegasus and Capricorn, of the Second Augusta.

Hadrian’s Wall ran just a few miles north of Tullie House and acted as a frontier marking the edge of the Roman Empire. Although it was defensive in nature, and allowed the army to keep a check on tribes north of the wall, movement would have been fluid, as it also acted as a customs post for trade. Of this system, Stanwix was the largest and probably one of the most important forts on the wall.

Auxiliaries were recruited from conquered countries throughout the Roman Empire. Many of these formed the garrison of Hadrian’s Wall, and of both the Stanwix and Carlisle forts. Evidence shows the soldiers were from Dacia (modern Romania), Dalmatia (Adriatic coast), Gaul (France), Spain, Thrace (modern Bulgaria) and Tungrians (from modern Belgium). At the fort in Carlisle, which was located between what is now Carlisle Castle and Tullie House, the ala Gallorum Sebosiana were stationed. This was a cavalry unit that was levied in Gaul and they were stationed here from AD83. Evidence of this unit comes from a writing tablet recording the garrisons wheat and barley rations. In another writing tablet we have the name of the commanding officer, Augurinus .

We know that the largest cavalry unit in Britain, the ala Petriana, was stationed at the wall fort of Stanwix from the AD160’s onwards. One of these cavalrymen is depicted on a tombstone, riding down a Celt adversary,a popular style tombstone for auxiliary cavalrymen.
A large number of pieces of soldier’s equipment have been discovered in Carlisle. This includes some important pieces of armour that were found within, what appears to be, a workshop within the fort itself. Amongst the assemblage there was a piece of scale armour known as lorica squamata, and a scale neck guard from a helmet, known only from depictions of Parthian heavy cavalry. Other finds of equipment include a well preserved cheek piece from a helmet, a shield boss, and baldric mounts amongst others. There have also been a large number of cavalry fittings found in the area, which re-affirms the presence of cavalry units in Carlisle.

Gods and Religion Artifacts

Head of a genius loci figure - click to explore

Bas-relief showing hercules - click to explore

Roman Religion

When the Romans arrived in Britain, they brought their religion with them. This slowly became mixed with the beliefs of the Celtic people who were already living here. As the Celts lived in a rural society, their religion was centred around ideas of nature and fertility. Animals were especially important and featured widely in association with different deities (gods and goddesses). A number of gods and goddesses were worshipped throughout the Celtic regions of north-west Europe, but many others were known only in certain places. Many of the Celtic deities also had a wide range of functions - they could be prayed to regardless of what the worshipper was asking of them, and were not responsible only for war or harvests, for example. This was different to the Roman model in which each god and goddess was responsible for certain aspects of life and the world, such as Neptune, god of the sea and Venus, goddess of love.

Compared to the fairly loose nature of Celtic religion, the Romans conducted their worship with a high level of organisation and supervision. Temples were set up in every town in the empire to various different deities and these were central to public life. Everyone had to worship the Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva as well as the imperial cult of deified emperors. Beyond this, a person was free to worship whichever gods and goddesses they chose, and there were hundreds, including a large number adopted from other countries and cultures. The classical Roman gods, including Jupiter, Mars, Mercury and Venus, had been adapted from the Greek Olympian gods when the Roman Empire took over Greece. As the Empire grew, many oriental cults were adopted by the Romans, including those of the Persian god Mithras and Egyptian goddess Isis. Mithras was primarily worshipped by soldiers and merchants, and three temples to Mithras have been found along Hadrian’s Wall.

In both Celtic and Roman religion, people prayed to the gods to make something specific happen, like a good harvest or successful journey. The Romans carved these ‘favours’ on altars or inscriptions. In exchange for the favour being granted, the Romans and Celts offered their gods a sacrifice – often of animals (male for gods, female for goddesses) but smaller sacrifices were made with other types of food or gifts of value. As Roman and Celtic religions began to converge in Britain and other parts of Europe, local Celtic gods often became linked to Roman ones – one example is Mars Belatucadrus, who was worshipped at forts in the Carlisle area.

Before the arrival of the Romans, the Celts did not carve inscriptions naming their gods like the Romans did, nor did they carve sculptures or create statuettes in their likeness. The Celts adopted Roman art forms to portray their gods and many are now known from statues, sculptures and inscriptions on altars. In Britain, most of the inscriptions and dedication stones have been found in the military north, where stone was plentiful and skilled army masons were available to carve it.

The Romans used religion as a way to create a sense of community and identity, particularly with regard to the army. Religion also played a large part in Romanising the provinces. Classical Roman religion was largely about public worship - being seen to make prayers and sacrifices. Aspects of public worship included the building of temples, shrines and altars, and the giving of gifts to the gods. People also worshipped in private at home, where they set up shrines and portable altars, and they often carried amulets such as rings holding little carvings of their favoured deity. The Romans chose carefully which god they prayed to depending on what they were asking for. Within their area of influence, deities could have multiple functions, but an extra name called an epithet was added to the god’s name to specify exactly what you were praying for: Juno Populina was the protector of marriage, while Juno Lucina protected women in childbirth.

The oriental cults that were adopted by the Romans in some of the areas they conquered quickly became very popular throughout the Empire. Many of these were religions of intense personal significance, with various levels of ‘membership’ and initiation processes. Their popularity was due to the private, individual nature of worship, which was very different to the public spectacle associated with the worship of the classical deities of Rome. These cults were also often secretive and mysterious, and members who passed the initiation rites shared a common bond of achievement and belonging. Mithraism gave all initiates equal status during festivals, which made it a popular choice for soldiers who lived in a strictly hierarchical world.

The Romans enjoyed great religious freedom until the late fourth century, when Christianity was adopted as the official religion of the Empire. Christianity had never conformed to the Roman idea of religion because it worshipped one god only and its followers were forbidden from worshipping any other gods. This was problematic, as everyone in the empire had to worship the imperial cult and the Capitoline Triad. The Edict of Milan in AD313 established tolerance for Christians, and by AD390, all other 'pagan' religions were officially banned. In reality, people continued to practise paganism throughout the fifth century, on a less public scale. Temples and shrines were still visited and ancient beliefs still held. As the original Roman religion faded, many aspects of its beliefs and practices remained as part of Christian rituals and traditions.

What was the Imperial Cult?

The Imperial Cult was the name given to the worship of deceased emperors as gods. The Pharaohs of Egypt had long been worshipped as gods - their power stemmed from their divinity - but the idea of deifying a ruler after their death only began in Rome with Julius Caesar. The imperial cult quickly gained popularity, especially in the eastern half of the empire, and the cult became one of the focal points of life in the Roman cities. As such it was one of the major tools of Romanisation, used as a way to bring conquered people into the Roman way of life. Worship of the imperial cult was compulsory, like that of the Capitoline Triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. While other deities could be worshipped as chosen individually, at least some public show had to be made of worshipping the compulsory ones.

For the Roman authorities, the imperial cult was closer to a statement of political loyalty than to actual religion. By making the worship of previous emperors compulsory, Rome's intention was to promote loyalty to the Empire, and to legitimise the authority of the state. The political nature of the imperial cult is underlined by the fact that it was usually the Senate (the 'government' of Rome) that decided whether or not to grant deification to a particular emperor. The first-century emperors Augustus, Claudius, Vespasian, and Titus were deified. After the reign of Nerva in the late first century, few emperors were not honoured with deification. The cult was officially abandoned in AD390 when Christianity became the sole religion of the Empire.

The deification of a deceased emperor could be given or taken away depending on how the emperor conducted himself in life. Those who considered themselves gods when they were alive, such as Caligula and Domitian, were not awarded the honour after their deaths. For living emperors, worship could be made of their Victory, their numen (spirit or guiding force) or for the welfare of the imperial family. Sacrifice was not made to the deified emperors as it was to other gods, though it could be made on the emperor’s behalf. Altars dedicated to the emperor or his numen were often also dedicated to other deities as shown on an altar to Jupiter and ‘the Deity of our Emperor’ at Castlesteads.

Who was Mars?

Mars was the god of war and hunting and the son of Jupiter and Juno. Initially, Mars was a god of fertility and vegetation and a protector of cattle, fields and boundaries. Mars later became associated with battle as the growing Roman Empire expanded, and he came to be identified with the Greek god Ares. Unlike Ares, Mars was revered by all and rivaled Jupiter as the most honoured god. As he was regarded as the father of Rome's founder, Romulus, it was believed that all Romans were descendants of Mars. Not surprisingly, he was the most prominent of the military gods that were worshipped by the Roman soldiers in Britain.

Like other major Roman deities, Mars had a large number of epithets (secondary names) representing his different roles and aspects. Many of Mars's epithets resulted from the comparison or association of Mars with foreign gods. Mars Belatucadrus is an epithet found in five inscriptions in the area of Hadrian's Wall, equating the Celtic deity Belatu-Cadros with Mars. In Celtic mythology, Belatu-Cadros was a war god worshipped in northern Britain, particularly in Cumbria. The altars dedicated to Belatu-Cadros were usually small, plain, and of low quality. The variety of spellings of the name Belatu-Cadros might reflect a low standard of literacy, which has led to the suggestion that this god was mainly worshipped by people of low social status, including lower-ranked Roman soldiers and civilian Britons.

Mars Cocidius is a likening of Mars to the Celtic woodland hunting god Cocidius. Cocidius was worshipped around north-west Cumbria and Hadrian's Wall, and was associated with war only in instances where he was equated with Mars. Cocidius was also associated with Silvanus, the god of trees, fields and woodland. Like Belatu-Cadros, he was probably worshipped by lower-ranked Roman soldiers and civilian Britons, although silver plaques dedicated to Cocidius at Bewcastle suggest he may also have had more affluent followers. Fanum Cocidius, meaning 'the temple of Cocidius', was a Roman place-name for a location close to the Solway Estuary. There are dedications to Cocidius around Hadrian's Wall and Cumbria, including the forts at Bewcastle and Birdoswald, and an altar to Mars Cocidius was found at Stanwix.

Who was Sol Invictus?

Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun") was a sun-god who held great importance in Roman religion in the late third and fourth centuries. The Romans held a festival on December 25 called Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, "the birthday of the unconquered sun." December 25 was soon after the winter solstice, when daylight hours started to noticeably lengthen. This ‘rebirth’ of the sun in midwinter may also have been an influence in December 25 being chosen as Christ’s birthday. Constantine decreed in AD321 that dies Solis—day of the sun, "Sunday"—would be the Roman day of rest.

After his victories in the East, the emperor Aurelian introduced the official cult of Sol Invictus in AD274, making the sun-god the premier divinity of the empire, and wearing the god's radiated crown himself. Emperors up to Constantine in the early fourth century portrayed Sol Invictus on their official coinage, with the words SOLI INVICTO COMITI, thus claiming the Unconquered Sun as a companion to the emperor.

Though many Oriental cults, particularly that of Mithras, were widely practised among the Roman legions from the mid-second century, only that of Sol Invictus was the only official, approved cult for the army. Sol Invictus remained the chief deity of the Roman state until paganism was banned in AD390 by the emperor Theodosius I. Following a century of worshipping Sol Invictus as the most important god, the move to Christianity, with its worship of one single all-powerful sky-god, was a natural one for the Romans.

Who was Jupiter?

Jupiter (or Jove) was the king of the gods, and the god of sky and thunder. He is the equivalent of Zeus in Greek religion. Jupiter was the father of the god Mars and the grandfather of Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome. He was the chief god of the Capitoline Triad with Juno and Minerva– these were the most important gods of Rome and everyone had to worship them. In his role as patron deity of the Roman state, he was known as Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Jupiter the Best and Greatest) and he ruled over laws and social order.

The cult of Jupiter Optimus Maximus would have been introduced to conquered provinces more as a focus of loyalty to Rome than as a private personal faith. Jupiter, as king of the gods, was a natural symbol for military religion and allegiance. In Britain, Jupiter was sometimes associated with a Celtic sky god whose main symbol was the spoked wheel. This symbol occurs on altars to Jupiter at Birdoswald and Castlesteads. The wheel is associated with sky gods because the spokes are linked to the sun god’s chariot wheels, and the spoked wheel resembles the rays of the sun.

The large number of altars to Jupiter Optimus Maximus at forts like Birdoswald (with twenty-one inscriptions) perhaps represent an annual renewal of allegiance by Roman troops who buried the old altar and erected a new one each year on January 3rd. The altar to Jupiter Optimus Maximus was usually placed in a prominent position in a fort, such as the side of the parade ground. In practice, there should be more buried altars if they were replaced annually, and it may be that an altar was buried when a fort was abandoned, either for good or to another unit.

Who were the Mother Goddesses?

The Celtic mother goddesses are female deities, usually shown in stone carvings as individuals or a group of three, holding babies or baskets of fruit, loaves or fish (all fertility symbols). They are always shown seated. When shown as a group of three, the mother goddesses are called the Deae Matres.

The Deae Matres triad, although definitely Celtic (rather than Roman) in origin, was probably imported to Britain from the Rhineland (modern Belgium and north-west Germany) during the Roman occupation. They are found primarily around Hadrian’s Wall and the west of England, where stone was abundant. The mother goddesses were worshipped all over north-west Europe, wherever Celtic people were found.

Horned Celtic Gods

Before the time of the Romans, the Celts did not draw or sculpt likenesses of their gods. Once they had adopted the Roman custom of creating statues to represent their deities, the Celts depicted their gods in a monstrous form, although always based on a human image. This was done with multiple heads, a head too large for the body, a head without a body or a head with horns. The horns may be linked with strength and fertility in connection with the attributes of a ram or bull.

The head was particularly important to the Celts and was seen as the seat of power within the body. The number three was considered to be magical, so anything in triplicate was more powerful, particularly three heads.

Horns were generally added to enhance a god’s powers. It wasn’t only Celtic gods who were given horns – horned versions of Mars, Mercury and Silvanus are also known. Often the sculptures possess no other symbols to suggest which god the carving is intended to represent.

Who were the Genii Cucullati?

The Hooded Spirits, or Genii Cucullati, are figures found in religious sculpture across the Romano-Celtic region from Britain to Austria, though most have been found in Germany. They are usually shown as dwarfs wearing the Gaulish cucullus, a type of hooded cloak. The religious significance of these figures is still somewhat unclear, but they may be spirits of fertility and prosperity. In some depictions they are carrying shapes that can be seen as eggs, symbolizing life and rebirth.

In Britain the Genii Cucullati tend to be found in a triple deity form, similar to the Mother Goddesses, which seems to be specific to the British representations. The number three was considered by the Celts to have magical properties, and showing three figures together gave them more power as a whole. They were commonly represented in stone carvings, and many in Britain have been found around Hadrian’s Wall, where there was plenty of stone and army masons to carve the figures.

Genii were not all hooded – often they were protector spirits of a place (a home, town, river or region) or of other concepts, like prosperity. A person, such as the Emperor, could also have a genius, and the concept is similar to that of a guardian angel.

Who was Mercury?

Mercury was a messenger god and was also associated with trade, profit and commerce. He was always shown wearing winged shoes and carrying a caduceus, a herald's staff with two entwined snakes. These same attributes were shared by Mercury’s Greek equivalent Hermes. Mercury was considered a god of abundance and commercial success, particularly in Gaul (France), which made him very popular. Mercury is the most often represented deity in Britain as a whole, as he is in Gaul. He appears most often in his traditional role as a messenger and as a trader-god. Among military sites in Britain, however, Mars takes precedence over Mercury, because of his role in war and hunting.

When describing the gods of Celtic tribes, the Romans interpreted them as local manifestations of their own gods, rather than as separate deities, a cultural trait called the interpretation Romana. Mercury was probably the most popular god in Britain and Gaul because the Romans equated him with the Celtic god Lugus, and in this role he was often shown with the Celtic goddess Rosmerta. Although Lugus may originally have been a god of light, similar to the Roman Apollo, he was also an important god of trade, which made him more comparable to Mercury.

Who were Fortuna and Victory?

In Roman mythology, Fortuna, goddess of fortune, was the embodiment of luck. People believed that Fortuna was the cause of all their advantages and that her whims were responsible for their disasters. Fortuna did not always bring good luck - she could be doubtful (Fortuna Dubia), fickle (Fortuna Brevis), or bad luck (Fortuna Mala).

Victory was the goddess of victory. She is the Roman version of the Greek goddess Nike. Unlike Nike, Victory was a major part of Roman society, and multiple temples were erected in her honour.

Fortuna Augusta was the fortune of the emperor. As living emperors could not be worshipped, people would often pray to the emperor’s fortune or victory. All over the Roman world, Fortuna was worshipped at a great number of shrines under various titles that were applied to her according to the various circumstances of life in which her influence was hoped to have a positive effect.

Victory was frequently worshipped by triumphant generals returning from war. She appeared on Roman coins, jewellery and architecture, and was often shown with a chariot. An example of this is the statue of Victory on the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin.

Fortuna and Victory were especially beloved of the military and are particularly common on inscriptions or statues found around Hadrian’s Wall. Fortuna was invoked especially in bath-houses where soldiers were naked and vulnerable.

Victory was often portrayed holding a wreath, which was a symbol of the Emperor, and an inscribed stone from Castlesteads fort shows the goddess standing on a globe, indicating Rome’s victory and dominion over most of the known world.

Medicine Artifacts

Medical Care in Roman Carlisle

Medical Care in Roman Carlisle

We know that there were Roman physicians present in Carlisle, from the discovery of a number of medical instruments. It is likely that these men were military medics, used to treat the soldiers of the fort, but they may also have treated a small number of wealthy civilians. Ordinary people did not have access to such medical care and had to rely upon herbalists or the intervention of the gods.

It would seem that physicians in Carlisle were performing quite advanced surgery, on the evidence of a bronze scalpel handle, probes and forceps. Roman authors describe a large number of surgical procedures, from amputation to throat surgery. All of which would have been carried out without anaesthetic; making surgery an extremely painful and frightening experience. A copper alloy needle used to remove cataracts was also discovered on Annetwell Street. Celsus, a Roman medical writer of the 1st Century AD, wrote about this procedure on the eye, saying that “…The needle should not be entered timidly”. This vividly illustrates that undergoing medical procedures in Roman Carlisle would have been a gruesome experience. Even if a patient survived the initial procedure, infections were common, meaning that many patients would have died shortly after surgery.

Although some doctors may have treated a small number of wealthy civilians, the majority were employed in the Roman Army. The importance of this is illustrated in a writing tablet from Vindolanda, stating that about 4% of the cohort was not fit for duty due to illness or injury. Therefore medical care was essential to ensure that soldiers were fighting fit. There would have been a number of medical staff treating soldiers in Carlisle, the most important being the doctor or Medicus, some of which were ranked equal to Centurions and were called Medicus Ordinarius. One of these men, Anicius Ingenuus, is recorded on a tombstone at Housesteads on Hadrian’s Wall. A number of men also worked under the Medicus, including the Capsarii who were medical dressers, probably simple soldiers that dressed wounds during battle. Some forts such as Housesteads and Chester even had a Velatudinarium, or hospital within the walls, where ill and wounded soldiers would receive treatment.

Although there is, as yet, no record of a hospital within the forts at Carlisle, there would nonetheless have been medical care available to these soldiers. This can be seen in a writing tablet from the fort ditch at Carlisle referring to an ‘Albino seplasario’, or Albanus the pharmacist. Furthermore, although anaesthetic remedies were rarely used, a number of poppy seeds were found during excavations of the fort in Carlisle, and it has been suggested that they may have been used for their anaesthetic properties. As treatment available to the military was superior to the medical care accessible to the average civilian, this may have made service an attractive prospect.

Religion was also an important part of medical care and prayers, offerings and sacrifice to the Gods, would all have been part of the process of treating patients. One god that was particularly associated with medicine was Aesculapius, the god of healing, whose snake entwined staff, is still used as a medical symbol today. Although he became specifically associated with medicine, sacrifices and offering would also have been made to others gods too. Votives in the form of body parts have been discovered in Britain, either offered in the hope of a cure from the gods, or in thanks for their help. Although there is little material evidence, the people of Roman Carlisle would undoubtedly have offered prayers and gifts in the hope that they would be cured of illness.

Much of the medical practice implemented by the Romans was based upon the knowledge and ideas of the Greeks, and primarily the teachings of Hippocrates (460- 384BC). For this reason around 95% of the doctors recorded on inscriptions from the western empire were Greek in origin. A tombstone of a Greek doctor named A. Egnatius Pastor was found at Maryport and is evidence of Greek doctors working in Cumbria.